，，2025
abstract
nanopesticides offer significant advantages, such as enhancing pesticide bioactivity, increasing efficacy, and reducing overall usage. however, knowledge gaps regarding their environmental risks to non-target organisms hinder the industrial adoption of nanopesticides. in this study, abamectin was selected as a model pesticide, and earthworms (eisenia foetida) were employed as representative non-target organisms to evaluate the environmental behavior and ecotoxicity mechanisms of abamectin-loaded layered double hydroxides nanopesticide (mg/al ldhs-avm) in soil systems. the dissipation rate of ldhs-avm in soil was 2.9-fold slower than that of abamectin technical (avm tc). compared with avm tc, mg/al ldhs-avm significantly reduced the accumulation of the active ingredient in earthworms by 35 %. furthermore, mg/al ldhs-avm enhanced the antioxidant and detoxification capacities of earthworms through mg/al ldh nanoparticles (mg/al ldhs), significantly upregulating detoxification-related genes (efcyp2u1, efadh1, efgst-iii, and efgstt1) involved in the cyp2e1 and glutathione (gsh) biosynthesis pathways by 2.8- to 22.5-fold. compared to avm tc, mg/al ldhs-avm could significantly reduce the mda content in earthworms by half. these findings provide the first comprehensive safety assessment of mg/al ldhs-avm, offering a novel approach to mitigate the ecotoxicity of avm tc to non-target organisms through ldh np-mediated delivery.
graphical abstract
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